Philanthropy, a Greek word demonstrating the love for humanity, has become an important part of today’s society as many people and organizations demonstrate that love through charitable means and support. However, the idea of philanthropy varies from time and place; it is not a universal idea. Tracing down its different forms will help understand other societies and how philanthropy developed to what we know today. A great example would be the area where the word itself was born; in ancient Greece philanthropy occupied a special role in the form of “Xenia”. Xenia was considered an institutionalized guest-friendship that if violated it would be punished by the father of all gods and humans, Zeus. To understand Xenia, one must understand the terminology. Xenos is defined as “a friend in a foreign country who would be your “guest” in your country and your “host” in his country”, that being said, “Xenia is the relationship between these two individuals” (Mikalson, 2010, p. 229). The very fact that Zeus’ epithet was Xenios, indicated his role in this type of philanthropy, showcasing it’s importance in society and how people valued this tradition and feared punishment from the Gods if they dared to show inhospitality towards their guests (Fuchs, 2008). Moreover, this paper will examine the philanthropic tradition of Xenia in Ancient Greece; its origins while at the same time explore the importance of giving in this Ancient Greek tradition.

​It was often believed by the ancients that the Gods would descend from Mount Olympus and mingle with their human creations. As a result, it was this line of thinking which the tradition of Xenia gained its roots. In essence, it was the fear of offending a guest, who may have been one of these mingling Gods, which sparked this tradition (Fuchs, 2008). Xenia can be broken down into three aspects, the way in which the guest respects the host, the hospitality shown to the guest by the host, and the traditional gift given to the guest by the host when they part (Fuchs, 2008). It is through this tradition of gift giving that a bond is created between the host and his guest, which solidifies their relationship, which could transcend generations and may play a significant role in future political and tribal alliances (Robb, 1994).

This act of giving, in relation to Xenia, can be seen throughout many of the more recognizable works of mythological Greek literature. The most famous of the works, Homer’s “Iliad” and “The Odyssey”, both are laden with many examples of Xenia and more specifically the aspect of gift giving. In “The Odyssey” it is discussed in great detail how Odysseus is gifted a swift ship for his return home to Ithaca from the Phaeacian king, Alcinous (Robb, 1994). Diomedes and Glaucus, at opposing sides during the Trojan War, met in battle but recognized tokens and by reciting their lineage they realized they were bound by Xenia amongst their family line. Hence, they had to stop and exchanged their armour, which indicates the importance that Xenia played in Ancient Greek society; even battles had to seize. In the same fashion, wars can also start at the violation of Xenia, as it was the case with the Trojan War and Paris breaking the Xenia Menelaeus offered by eloping with his wife Helen (Homer, 1990).

From antiquity, the primary form of charity is represented in the institution of Xenia. As a result, both political and economic alliances were formed as well as animosities when the rules of Xenia were not respected and followed. To this day, Greek culture follows a strict code of conduct where the guest and host relationship is concerned. Guests are welcomed with open arms and are offered abundance as one would offer to a deity.

Works cited

Fuchs, P. (2008). Xenia-The Act of Gifting. Periferic 8Biennial for Contemporary Art as Gift. Retrieved February 3, 2014, from http://perifericbiennial.wordpress.com/2008/09/18/xenia-the-act-of-gifting/
Homer. (1990). The Iliad. (B. Knox, Ed. R. Fagles, Trans.) New York, NY: Penguin Classics.
Mikalson, J. (2010). Ancient Greek Religion. United Kingdom : Wiley-Blackwell; 2 Edition .
Robb, K. (1994). Literacy and paideia in ancient Greece. New York: Oxford University Press.

​This article is based on an interview with my father and my personal experiences in Pakistan. Islam is a dominant religion in Pakistan. Islam has very different traditions around marriages than western countries. Dating, finding a right person on your own to marry and love marriages are not allowed in most of the strict cities of Pakistan like Quetta, Khuzdar and Peshawar. In Islamic traditions marriages are mostly arranged by the parents of the girl and the boy, meaning that those boys and girls who have no parents or relatives to find them a life partner are unable to get marry.

​Most of the orphans living in orphanages remain bachelor for all their lives. In 2007, due to increased war in Quetta, Pakistan many young girls and boys were left with no parents or guardians and had to live in the orphanages. In 2008 Haji Eesaq, the head of the Local Islam mosque with volunteers of the mosque including my father, came together and formed a group. Their goal was to find suitable boys for the orphan girls and pay for their marriages.

Some extra money was also given to them so that they can start a living. The money was donated by individual people of the community and some of the money was given by the mosque. Some gold shop owners played an important role in donating money to orphans for their marriages. ​Most of the boys selected were also unable to get marry and were from the male orphanages in Quetta. My father also mentioned that after finding suitable people for the marriage the girl and the boy were asked to see each other and decide if they agree to marry. According to Islamic rules and regulations asking for the permission from the girl and the boy is a mandatory part of an arranged marriage. In Islamic traditions marrying poor women is considered a highest good deed and supporting them for all their life is considered being thankful to Allah and passing on the blessings of Allah to the rest of the community. Some boys who came to the mosque to marry some of the orphan girls were from very rich families and they considered it giving back to their community by marrying orphan girls.

​Haji Eesaq was killed in 2013 in a bombing by Taliban and the group was shattered. Now the mosque is trying to reunite the people and reinitiate a group to help orphans.

Works Cited

Hussaini, K. M. (2014, 01 28). Orphan Marriages. (O. Hussaini, Interviewer)

Chuas have had a famous association with the shrine of Shah Dola in the small town of Gujrat in Pakistan. According to legend, the holy man Shah Dola was able to cure infertility in women. The price was for the first-born to be given to him (or his shrine following his death), failing which all subsequent children would be born as chuas. There is varying opinion on whether and how the shrine of Shah Dola has or has not exploited microcephalic children, people’s religious sentiments and superstitious beliefs to bring resources to the shrine and its administrators. While it may well be that, over the centuries, Shah Dola’s shrine has provided sanctuary for children with microcephaly, accusations are widespread that shrine administrators intentionally deformed firstborns given to them by fertility-challenged couples by clamping the heads of the babies in metal caps, restricting their growth and thereby inducing microcephaly. The intentionally-deformed children, it is claimed, were then used or leased out for begging. It seems that this has not been substantiated through evidence, but enough pressure built up through these claims that the shrine was taken over by a government department that administers awqaf, the traditional Islamic charitable trust. The government refutes claims that there is or was any practice of intentional deforming of children or that the shrine has ever exploited microcephalics. Accusations are rife about criminally-organized “begging mafias” associated with the shrine and the collusion of government administrators with these gangs who traffic in people with deformities.

It is easy to see why such claims abound. Chuas are “high-value beggers”, able to solicit twice the amount in daily alms than a civil servant would earn in a day. Their high earning power as beggers is linked to the fact that the deformed have a special status in the minds of the Pakistani rural classes. They are seen as being closer to God, with privileged access to His ear. In one online documentary about the phenomenon, a “chua-master” (a person who “owns” a chua as a means of income) refers to the microcephalic child he begs with as “sain-ji” (a reverent way of addressing a guru) and “malang” (a roving spiritual mendicant). As he roams the streets with his chua, he exhorts people to “give him charity and say a prayer.” Giving to a chua increases your chances of being heard by God because the deformed are “God’s people” – those who are provided for solely in fortuitous ways, like the generosity of strangers. Giving charity to the deformed and associating with them is therefore a trade to attain closeness to God. There is also an element of fear and self-protection to this giving—because they are heard more closely by God, the deformed and the renunciate also have the power to plague you. If you repudiate them or turn your back on them, God in turn may well turn his back on you.
There is a widespread belief in rural Pakistani culture that “providence is written”; everyone comes into the world with an allocation of means and resources and a fortune already accorded by the will of God. That is why a new child in the family is rarely seen as stretching limited resources—it is believed that the child brings resources with them, because God provides for all. The deformed perform a function as God’s messengers; they are incarnate reminders to people about fortune and God’s will. In giving charity to the deformed the givers affirm their faith in providence by becoming instruments of it.

Works Cited

http://www.independentliving.org/miles201005.html

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3346580/What-makes-us-human.html

Durga Puja is a truly vibrant celebration of art, culture and religion. Taking place over a five day period in the South Asian region, Durga Puja is celebrated predominantly by Bengali Hindus. Outside of South Asia, Durga Puja festivities also take place in Bengali Hindu communities all around the world. The largest celebrations of Durga Puja take place in the Indian state of West Bengal , but also hold major importance in the municipal regions of New Delhi and Kolkata. Outside of India, the largest Durga Puja celebrations take place in Bangladesh, where approximately eight percent of the population is Bengali Hindu. The festival celebrates the victory of the goddess Durga over the evil buffalo demon Mahishasura. The story of Durga’s victory over Mahishasura manifests itself as a celebratory example of good winning over evil, but also as an important religious example of the power of the female spirit. Durga Puja is known internationally as the largest open air art show, as art and visual representations of the Goddess Durga appear to be the festival’s main focus. However, philanthropy and charity also hold an important role in the Durga Puja, a role that has evolved greatly as the festival’s prominence has caught the attention of multi-national corporations and regional big business.

From a religious standpoint, there are many ritualistic elements to the festival of Durga Puja. “Puja” has a close resemblance to the English definition for “ritual”. Bengali Hindus typically wake up at four am on the first day of the five day festival, to listen to pop culture personalities retelling the epic tale of Durga and Mahishasura. Ritual drummers, known by the name “Dhakis” walk the streets performing prayers and ritualistic dances. Statues of the goddess Durga are also constructed and hand painted, later to be dissolved in water at the end of the five day festival, usually in the river Ganges or a waterway that flows into it. The most well known religious element of Durga Puja, however, are the Pandals. Pandals are outdoor prayer chambers of sorts. They are manually constructed, and are used to perform the “pujas” or prayer rituals within. Pandals have come to take a most well known position amongst all the religious elements involved in Durga Puja, because of the decorative, communal work involved in their design and construction. Pandals are typically highly decorative and usually depict Durga with her children. Pandals can also be themed, as they often are, manifesting the physical characteristics of t.v shows, ancient civilizations and world cultures within their design and construction.

Fundraising and charity also have a part to play within the context of Durga Puja. Historically, local communities would go door to door, fundraising for the actual construction and preparation of the often ornate Pandals. The money not used towards the construction and preparation of the given community’s Pandal would be donated to a charity or cause chosen by the community members themselves. However, with the emergence of multinational private interest, fundraising for the construction of the Pandals has changed drastically. Now, in major urban centres all over northwestern India and Bangladesh, construction of communal Pandals has been funded largely by private corporations and interest groups. At present, when a community does choose to fundraise, it is usually to recognize tradition for symbolic purposes, and not actually required to prepare the Pandal for Durga Puja.

The emergence of private interest funding of Durga Puja-related activities, has changed the character of the festival on a large scale. As mentioned earlier, Durga Puja has been labeled “the largest open air art festival in the world”. This must be due to, at least or in part, to corporate funding of Pandal construction activities, leading to Pandals being bigger, better and more eye catching. This may be a good thing, yet there may be many unknown negative aspects to this shift in funding Durga Puja Pandal construction. Many communities may no longer have a say in terms of how non-pandal construction funds get distributed my corporate funders/sponsors. Construction of Pandals sponsored through corporate sponsorship may not even include a charitable giving aspect to the festival. Research for this short paper was not extensive, and corporate sponsorship of Durga Puja have only been in full swing since the mid 1990’s, thus, the full effects of this change cannot be exhaustively described here. What can be said, is that the grassroots organizing and the communal choosing of charitable causes is quickly shifting to becoming responsibilities of the many private corporations who sponsor Durga Puja Pandal construction and other activities.

Works Cited

Parmita Borah (2 October 2011). Durga Puja- A celebration of Female Supremacy”. EF News International. Retrieved 22 September 2014.

McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516791-0 Pp. 214.

Bhattacharya, Tithi. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol 66. No. 4 (Nov. 2007)Tracking the Goddess: Religion, Community and Identity in the Durga Puja Ceremonies of Nineteenth-Century Calcutta. Pp. 916-965.

Gupta, K. (2006). Concise Encyclopedia of India 3rd Edition. New Delhi: Atlantic. Pp. 986. ISBN 81-269-0639-1.

The Hindu Article on Durga Puja”. Chennai, India. 6 August 2009. Retrieved 22 September 2014.

Islamic history has seen many philanthropic conventions and traditions over time. Although some of these customs are no longer existent or have been significantly altered from their original structure, there continues to be many philanthropic practices that prevail in current Islamic culture.

One such tradition that has been closely connected to Islamic philanthropy for many centuries is the construction and support of madrasas (Blanchard, 2007). A historic Islamic madrasa can be defined as an institution in which male Muslim students go to receive higher education chiefly on the topic of religion among many other subject areas (Hefner & Qasim Zaman, 2007). Madrasas were typically founded and supported by Islamic elites who offered funding through religious endowments to sustain services offered to students by the institution (Blanchard, 2007). This paper will specifically examine Nizamiyah; one of the earliest madrasas established in Islamic history.

Nazamiyah was founded by Seljuq vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, in Baghdad, Iraq during the middle of the eleventh century (Blanchard, 2007). The institution was made up specifically of male students who practiced Muslim faith (Makdisi, 1970). Attendees of Nizamiyah were not required to provide any payment to the founder or the institution itself (Makdisi, 1970). During their time receiving higher education at Nizamiyah, students had access to educational services, learning facilities, dormitories, dining halls, libraries, and medical services (Blanchard, 2007). They were also granted with scholarships and supplementary allowances to compensate for any further living costs they encountered (Makdisi, 1970). Much of what was taught at Nizamiyah was based on Muslim faith and focused on religious sciences, architecture, and literature (Hefner & Qasim Zaman, 2007).

Madrasas were constructed from the wakf of an elite family, which typically consisted of a building, piece of property, or funds that were donated specifically for the charitable purpose of helping others in need (Lapidus, 1984). Although madrasas possessed many benefits for students, founders of these institutions also received reward for their generosity on a social and spiritual level. During the eleventh century, when Nizamiyah was an operational madrasa in Iraq, funding and supporting these institutions enhanced the familial status of the founder and was thought to bring them close to their higher power (Lapidus, 1984).

Political in nature, the overall goal of Nizamiyah was to produce educated men who were capable of contributing to the bureaucratic class in Islamic culture (Blanchard, 2007). Although Nizamiyah had many immediate philanthropic notions, such as providing food and medical care, it also aimed to promote social mobility for Muslim men (Hefner & Qasim Zaman, 2007). Essentially, Nizamiyah has played an instrumental role shaping and perpetuating modern forms of education and philanthropy in modern Islamic society.

Works Cited

Blanchard, C. (2007). Islamic religious schools, madrasas: Background.

Hefner, R. & Qasim Zaman, M. (2007). Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of modern Muslim education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Lapidus, I. (1984). Muslim cities in the later middle ages. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Makdisi, G. (1970). Madrasa and university in the middle ages. Studia Islamica, 32, 255-264. Retrieved from http://www.studiaislamica.com

“Nature gives without expectation of return – and we should too” – Phra Santikaro, noted monk

Generally speaking, the concept or practice of giving is “universally recognized as one of the most basic human virtues, a quality that testifies to the depth of one’s humanity and one’s capacity for self-transcendence” (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2010). In Western tradition, giving is often seen as an obligation or something we should strive for, and it often comes with an expectation of being recognized in some way. Our giving has become an act of exchange or an investment (Karnjariya Sukrung, The Rewards of Giving). Of course, the concepts of giving and generosity are not limited to Western traditions. Giving is known by a number of terms worldwide and takes on many different shapes and forms. Buddhism takes on a different perspective of giving, or dana as it is called, than does the Western tradition. Buddhism views giving, or dana, not only as a virtue, but instead of as a way of life and as essential in order to achieve true enlightenment. Enlightenment is the ultimate goal of Buddhism. This paper will explore the Buddhist tradition of dana or giving and how it manifests itself within the tradition.

Buddhism teaches that we exist as a vast network of life, so that we are continuously receiving the generosity of others. This means that we can choose to orient ourselves more and more towards others, developing loving-kindness for them and learning to give in all ways to all beings (Peter Joseph, Traditions of Giving in Buddhism). When they begin to explore Buddhism, most people are struck by the pervasiveness of the practice of giving and of generosity. Starting with the Buddha, the tradition has always emphasized that an open-handed and open-hearted orientation to life is essential if one is to make spiritual progress. It is no accident then that dana is frequently given “first in the systems of practice; it is emphasized by all schools and precise instructions are given in how to become increasingly generous”(Giving of the Heart – Giving in Buddhism). Buddhism seeks to replace the potentially natural human tendency to take, to draw to oneself and care about oneself first and to instead “grow towards Enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism, where we are instructed to enter into others’ lives sympathetically, to imaginatively identify with their pleasures and pain (Giving of the Heart – Giving in Buddhism).

With Buddhism, the gifts that we are to give are whatever is most needed by a particular person, and range from the most basis material things such as food, clothing and shelter, to those gifts that demand more of the donor, such as helpful communication, education, or even one’s life. The Buddhist tradition of giving recognizes that there is a range of motivations for our giving, from the Transactional (when I get something in return) to the transcendent (when giving means overcoming selfishness). Each of these is seen as “having validity, but the mental and emotional state from which we act is of supreme importance” (Peter Joseph, 2000). In essence, what this entails is that we need to examine our motives for the giving and ensure they are coming from a place of purity, giving solely for the sake of giving.

Giving, or dana, is one of the three elements of the path of practice as formulated by Buddha for laypeople (New World Encyclopedia). In Buddhism, giving is the beginning of one’s journey to Nirvana. True giving must be free from the expectation of anything in return, and in some perspectives “if you expect even a word of appreciation like thank you from the receivers, then it is not free giving, but an exchange (Karnjariya Sukrung, The Rewards of Giving). Dana is the first step towards eliminating the defilement of greed, hate and delusion (lobka, dosa, moha) – for every act of giving is an act of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion (Mahindarama.com). When you give you are considered to have only loving-kindness (meta) and compassion (karuna) in your heart, so of course greed, hate and delusion will be absent as a result. Viewed as the quality of generosity, giving has a particularly intimate connection to the entire movement of the Buddha’s path.

Giving in the Buddhist perspective means that when we are kind to each other, we are giving kindness, gentleness, comfort, peace and happiness. In the teaching of Buddha, the practice of giving claims a place of special eminence, one which singles it out as being in a sense the foundation and seed of spiritual development (Bhinkkhu Bodhi, 2010). The true practice of giving is not defined by an outwardly act where an object is transferred from one to another, but instead as “an inward disposition to give, a disposition strengthened by outward acts of giving and where in turn makes possible still more demanding acts of self-sacrifice” (Bhinkkhu Bodhi, 2010).

In the Buddhist practice, the practice of giving is also seen as a basis of merit or wholesome kamma (karma) and when it is coupled with other virtues such as morality, concentration and insight, it leads ultimately to liberation from samsara, the cycle of repeated existence (Susan Elbaum Jootka, 2010). Like all good deeds in Buddhism, an act of giving will bring us happiness in the future in accordance with the karma laws of cause and effect taught by the Buddha. In this view, “giving yields benefits in the present life and lives to come whether or not we are aware of this fact, but when the volition is accompanied by understanding, we can greatly increase the merits earned by our gifts” (Susan Elbaum Jootka,2010). The amount of merit gained varies according to three factors: the quality of the donor’s motive, the spiritual purity of the recipient, and the kind and size of the gift. Simply put, good deeds mean good results and bad deeds mean bad results and the idea is to create as much good karma as possible and in the practice of giving this means keeping one’s mind pure in the act of giving, choosing the worthiest recipient available, and choosing the most appropriate and generous gifts one can afford. This is somewhat different from the Western perspective where the rewards of giving are usually expected more immediately.

In Buddhism, giving is the beginning of one’s journey to the ultimate goal of the Buddhist tradition which is Enlightenment. Although this might appear to be too great an ideal to aspire to in terms of the Western perspective of giving, perhaps we could adopt some of the concepts surrounding giving or dana in our own lives and strive to view giving in a different light.

Works cited

“Dana: The Act of Giving” retrieved from http://www.mahindarama.com/e-library/dana-vis.htm

“Dana: The Practice of Giving”, Selected Essays edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Access to Insight June 2010 retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html

Give of the Heart – Giving in Buddhism retrieved from http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma8/gift.html

Jootka, Susan Elbaum “The Practice of Giving” from “Dana: The Practice of Giving”, Selected Essays edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Access to Insight June 2010 retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html

Joseph, Peter “Traditions of Giving in Buddhism, Alliance Magazine December 2000 retrieved from http://www.alliancemagazine.org/en/content/traditions-giving-buddhism

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Almsgiving

Sukrung, Karnjaiya “The Rewards of Giving” retrieved from http://asisarecipe.com//thaigiving.html

Acts of philanthropy occur in almost every population, all over the world. Often these acts stem from religious beliefs. In Islam, Allah is the owner of everything that exists (Jalili, 2006). From this comes the belief that wealth and money should be evenly distributed among the people in order to avoid the concentration of economic power within a few hands (Jalili, 2006). To understand how this wealth is evenly distributed we must turn to the Qu’ran.

In Islam, the Qu’ran is the religious text that Muslims follow for spiritual guidance. From the Qu’ran, two fields of charity developed: the required alms tax, known as zakat, and voluntary donations known as sadaqa, recommended to every Muslim (Singer, 2005). The two themes of giving are subtly different despite seeming very similar. Both involve charitable donations to those in need and both operate under the assumption that the donor is doing so with the best of intentions (Kochuyt, 2009). The main difference, in theory, between the two is that zakat is mandatory while sadaqa is not. This obligation to pay the zakat tax might mean that in reality the donor is not doing so because he wants to. Philanthropy is an altruistic act that is done for the benefit of others. Zakat involves giving and benefits those in need, but zakat is mandatory and therefore can be argued that it is not an act of philanthropy. It should be noted, however, that often the terms zakat and sadaqa are used interchangeably. It is generally assumed that, regardless of whether one gives out of obligation or free-will, the act is selfless and reflects the donor’s pure niyya, or intention (Kochuyt, 2009).

In theory, sadaqa is the more philanthropic act of the two. It is voluntary and therefore reflects more accurately the altruistic nature we associate with philanthropy. One such historical act of sadaqa involved the donation of a basic necessity: food.

Public kitchens in the Ottoman Empire, known as imarets, began in the 14th century and distributed food free of charge to those in need (Singer, 2006). These imarets were acts of sadaqa, meant to bring the wealthy founders closer to God (Singer, 2005). From a philanthropic perspective, the public kitchen, Singer (2006) argues, was an expression of the Ottoman desire to see all citizens, regardless of their standing in the social hierarchy, reap the benefits of the Ottoman Empire.

In Islam, charity is guided by the religious beliefs outlined by Allah in the Qu’ran. The two types of charity that emerge are zakat, a compulsory alms tax for the poor, and sadaqa, a voluntary donation. Regardless of whether giving is compulsory or a selfless desire to help, the charitable actions promoted through Islam help promote the idea of philanthropy. Giving and charity are important parts of the Islamic religion.

Works Cited

Jalili, A. (2006). A descriptive overview of Islamic taxation. Journal of American Academy of Business 8(2): 16-28.

Kochuyt, T. (2009). God, gifts, and poor people: On charity in Islam. Social Compass 56(1): 98-116.

Singer, Amy. (2005). Serving up charity: The Ottoman public kitchen. Journal of Interdisciplinary History

Singer, Amy. (2006). Soup and sadaqa: Charity in Islamic societies. Historical Research 79 (205): 306-324.

Often Sadaqah is made in the form of a “waqf, which is a gift that is used to bring a return, with the profits being put towards charity. According to the Kerala State WAFK Board, the word “Waqf” has its origin in the Arabic term “Waqufa”, meaning to hold or tie up. A waqf is very similar to a charitable trust or endowment made in Western culture.

A waqf can be made in many forms, including books, agricultural machinery, cattle, shares, arable land, money, buildings, a business and more. Often the rewards for this type of charity continue even after the donor’s death and for as long as people continue to benefit from the waqf (Islamic Relief Worldwide, n.d.). In fact, a very central element to a waqf is its permanence (Encyclopedia of the Middle East, 2008). For a donation to be considered a waqf, it must be a form of continuous charity and the original gift can never be sold or altered (Islamic Relief Worldwide, n.d.). The only exceptions to these restrictions are when donors or trustees of the waqf violate the contract or if the founder or manager secedes from Islam (Encyclopedia of the Middle East, 2008).

According to the Kalifah Institute, throughout Islamic history there have been three types of waqf. In the first type, a religious waqf, all revenue generated by the original gift is spent solely on the operation and maintenance of mosques (Kalifah Institute, 2011). The second type, a philanthropic waqf, aims at supporting the poor segment of the society and the activities of the community at large (Kalifah Institute, 2011). Libraries, scientific research, education, health services, the environment, parks, roads, and bridges are all examples of projects and programs that are supported by philanthropic waqfs. The final type of waqf is called a posterity or family waqf, which ensures that the donor’s family and children be the first to benefit from the revenues of their waqf (Kalifah Institute, 2011). In this case only the surplus, if any, would be given to the poor. This last type of waqf is very interesting because it originated as a way to circumvent regulations In Islam that do not allow inheritance, causing wealth of individuals to become property of the ruler (Encyclopedia of the Middle East, 2008). Wealthy families donated properties as waqf, naming their sons as trustees. The trustee usually received 10% of the income, guaranteeing that at least some wealth remained in the family (Encyclopedia of the Middle East, 2008).
Today, charitable organizations such as Islamic Relief organize large waqfs to cover the costs for long-term projects. For example, donations from the public to the organization are pooled and invested according to the principles of Islamic Shari’ah, and the income is then used to help the poor (Islamic Relief Worldwide, n.d.).

Works Cited

Encyclopedia of the Middle East (2008). Waqf. Retrieved on February 3, 2011 from http://www.mideastweb.org/Middle-East-Encyclopedia/waqf.htm

Islamic Relief Worldwide (n.d.). Waqf Future Fund. Retrieved on February 3, 2011 from http://www.islamic-relief.com/Waqf/default.aspx?depID=16

Kalifah Institute (2011). WAQAF. Retrieved February 2, 2011 from http://www.islamic-world.net/economic/waqf/waqaf_mainpage.html

Kerela State WAKF Board (n.d.). Wafk. Retrieved February 3, 2011 from http://www.keralastatewakfboard.org/

Wikipedia (2010). Sadaqah. Retrieved February 2, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadaqah

If it is possible for humans to have a drive – perhaps even an instinctual one – to be generous and philanthropic, then it bears reason that there should be examples of philanthropic activities happening all over the world and all throughout history. This paper will explore the possibility of the existence of philanthropy in ancient Egyptian civilization – a civilization known for its pioneering thought, spectacular advances and magnificent beauty.

The religion of the ancient Egyptians was polytheistic, and it affected every aspect of their culture. The focus of daily life was on the interaction between humans and the divine realm; a person’s actions would affect both the state of the terrestrial world as well as their fate in the afterlife. After death, the Egyptians believed each person to be judged by the “weighing of the heart”, a process in which the gods scrutinized the actions of the deceased to determine whether they had behaved in accordance with Ma’at, and deciding if they could proceed to the afterlife.

Ma’at was a concept of truth, balance, order and justice, personified in Egyptian culture as a goddess. An individual could violate Ma’at by their actions, but so too could the nation as a whole. The ancient Egyptians believed that failure to maintain Ma’at as a country could result in divine intervention in the form of floods, famine, enemy incursions and scourges on crops – the king, acting as intermediary between humans and gods, was the key to upholding Ma’at, both by maintaining justice and harmony in human society and by sustaining the gods with temples and offerings.

Although Ma’at was seen to transcend ethics – which was considered a utility of the human world – it was entwined with it. Ma’at was the immutable moral standard by which a person could judge right or wrong. However, establishing Ma’at was not a natural phenomenon and something the individual was required to constantly work towards; it was believed that the natural tendency of things is deterioration towards the opposite of Ma’at: evil, chaos and injustice.

There are documented examples of giving in ancient Egyptian civilization related to religion. Temples, being central to Egyptian society and requiring vast resources devoted to their upkeep, regularly received donations from the monarchy. Pharaohs often put resources towards the expansion of temples as part of their obligation to honor the gods. Egyptians frequently donated goods to be offered to the temple deity and objects inscribed with prayers to be placed in temple courts.

Greed was condemned; selfishness, jealousy and the desire for possessions was seen as an incurable illness of the heart and a danger to the societal balance. It was seen as being contrary to Ma’at to be an unfair employer who jeopardized the independence or subsistence of their labourers with unremunerated work. Inscriptions found in tombs have noted examples of individuals that gave to those in need (i.e. bread, clothes, boats), as well as those who prided themselves on protecting orphans and defending widows. I even found reference to “charity” in ancient Egypt as being perceived as an inner disposition toward fellow human beings, and a way to propitiate the gods for the purposes of achieving immortality.

It would seem that ancient Egypt was a generous and philanthropic society, correct?

What has not been mentioned is that ancient Egyptian society was highly polarized: the chasm between rich and poor only growing more pronounced with the passage of the centuries. A diminutive upper class ruled – with the help of scribal administration and a good dose of religious fear – over the masses of Egyptian farmers and peasants living barely above subsistence level, exacting huge taxes on them (on average, 20% of their crops) and ruthlessly punishing them when they couldn’t pay.

A recent archaeological excavation in the news in November, 2010 found the burial site of 400 lower class Egyptian people, dating somewhere between 2,700 and 2,000 years ago on the Giza plateau in Egypt. Research shows that these individuals were malnourished, with high incidence of blood disorders present, suggesting a sub-standard diet for this population.

Does this revelation change the way you think about the ancient Egyptians and their generosity? You decide!

Works Cited

“An Overview of the Ancient Egyptian Religion”

http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/religion.htm

“Ancient Egyptian Religion”

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion

“Ancient Egyptian Society and Family Life”

http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/

“Charity”

http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3424500543/charity.html

“Egyptian Temples – Part 1”

http://www.philae.nu/akhet/temples1.html

“Egypt’s Orphans Day: Looking to the Future”

http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=3&id=23442

“Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt:” http://books.google.ca/books?id=PG6HffPwmuMC&pg=PA909&lpg=PA909&dq=ancient+egypt+corvee&source=bl&ots=VeVRuLPTyK&sig=J0A7EyFbshYfzBs7cX7

“Living in Maat – the Natural Order”

http://www.all-about-egypt.com/maat.html

“Ma’at, Goddess of Truth, Balance, Order”

http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/maat2.htm

“Ma’at”

http://www.osirisnet.net/dieux/maat/e_maat.htm

“Paupers and the Pyramids: 400 poor burials unearthed near Giza” http://www.archaeologydaily.com/news/201011265627/Paupers-and-the-pyramids-400-poor-burials-unearthed-near-Giza.html

“The Life of Ancient Egyptians”

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/oldcivilization/Egyptology/LifeAncient/lifeinEgypt6.htm

“The Widow and Orphan in Egypt – Before the New Kingdom” http://www.akademiai.com/content/x1668355870m1590/fulltext.pdf?page=1

​Once upon a time, there was a little boy named Jaya. He lived in a little Indian village where the Gautam Buddha happened to come across one day. The villagers all came to welcome the Buddha and offered him fruits and water to drink. The Buddha spoke throught the day and night to the villagers along with Jaya. Jaya watched and listened to the sound of Buddha’s voice until he fell asleep; he was fascinated with Buddha with his calm presents and the conviction in his words. When the child a woke from his slumber he saw the Guatam Buddha leaving, the child wanted to scream out and beg Buddha to stay. Instead Jaya watched as the villagers offered Buddha more fruit and grain to take on his journey. Jaya having nothing to offer to Buddha so instead he gathered dust and soil from the earth and offered it to Buddha. Buddha saw the faith and love in Jaya’s eyes and blessed him.
​
Many people believe that this child was later reincarnated as Emperor Asoka the Great (304BC -232BC). Emperor Asoka was the third know emperor of the Mauryan dynasty from 271BC to 232BC. During his rule he lead many wars and gained the throne after he attacked Kalinga (Orissa present day), his brothers kingdom, in order to expand his kingdom. This particular war resulted in the death of thousands of people, including his brother. However, it was after this particularly bloody war that Asoka decided to give up war and violence forever and he became a Buddhist. Asoka sent missionaries to South East Asia, Egypt, Macedonia, Cyrene (Libya present day), Syria, and even sent his son, Mahinda a Theraveda monk, to Sri Lanka. All religions were accepted in Asoka`s kingdom but Buddhism was embraced. Due to his Buddhist beliefs he became very dedicated and devoted to the well being of his kingdom.

​Emperor Asoka the Great earned his name by improving his kingdom. He introduced public health care for humans, animals and all living things. In his kingdom he built several hospitals, dispensaries, and even hospices for the elderly and dying. He also banned animal sacrifices, which at the time were part of the culture and very accepted. Asoka also built veterinary hospitals and dispensaries and even banned pollution of water. To further protect all living things in his kingdom he built botanical and herbal gardens to preserve nature and to utilize medicinal herbs. Asoka believed that all medical knowledge should be freely shared for the greater good.

​Asoka also created wildlife reserves, improved agriculture and horticulture. He also sponsored cave exploration to provide traveling monks with shelter. In the second half of Emperor Asoka’s life he lived his life devoted to peaceful coexistence with all living things, tolerance, social welfare, education, justice, and ecological responsibilities to mother earth. Asoka’s Empire was the first powerful Buddhist practicing monarch. He united his empire under Buddhist philosophies and drastically changed his empire for the better.

Works Cited

http://www.lonympics.co.uk/asoka.htm

http://people.virginia.edu/~pm9k/59/gita/ashoka.html

http://www.thenagain.info/webchron/india/Asoka.html